Historian Geoffrey Parker explains the reason for seventeenth century rebellions as such: “it was, in that undemocratic age, the only mean by which the people could register their discontent with government policies.” Although concise, it oversimplifies the many revolts of the time and implies a lack of various, complex causes. Most seventeenth century revolts were the combination of grievances taking root as far back as the mid-1500s plus contemporary issues that led to the abuse of power of monarchs. It should also be noted that most of these revolts (or can they be called separatist movements?) took place in provinces that were recently united with the ruling nation, meaning that the sense of nationalism and loyalty to the throne would not exist, making it easier for the oppressed populations to be susceptible to ideas of revolution.
Religious oppression was a big cause in some subject states. The Bohemian Revolt (which is claimed to have caused the Thirty Years War) was sparked by the religious intolerance of the Holy Roman Empire and emperor Matthias. Catholics were allowed to close down Protestant churches, non-Catholics were refused civic office, and petitions to Matthias were ignored and even declared illegal in this matter. Ukraine had similar problems, being Orthodox in a staunchly Catholic Poland. Orthodox lands were seized and the acceptance of a Uniate church was enforced with various harsh measures. The Ukrainian Chronicle of the Eye-Witness of the 1640s stated
children have been killed … women and daughters have been subject to abuse … they enrich themselves at our expense, [inventing] various taxes from Orthodox weddings and … christening children
This prompted the Khmelnitsky Rebellion which managed to convince the new Polish king to make some concessions and promises to the Orthodox population (which he never fulfilled). Finally, in Britain, Charles I attempted the imposition of a Book of Prayer in Scotland to undermine the Scottish Presbyterian Church. The complications from this resulted in war and contributed to the problems that led to the English Civil War.
However not all revolting states were victims of religious oppression. France had started levying all kinds of taxes to support her involvement in the Thirty Years War and to sustain herself, as her economy was failing. Parker’s book, Europe in Crisis, explains her taxes were excessive in certain provinces such as Normandy, where taxes were fourteen times heavier than in Provence and eleven times heavier than in Languedoc. Similarly, to support her armies, Spain had a habit of inflicting forced loans on Portugal and Catalonia. Spain had in fact demanded more taxes than could reasonably be met, provoking numerous rebellions in Basque Spain, Portugal, and Catalonia. In England, Charles I had been warring with Scotland and imposed taxes on his subjects to raise the money for it without having to call together Parliament (as they did not get along very well). Both England and France tried to raise money by selling titles and offices, resulting in the inflation and decline of prestige of the aristocracy. Overall, there was no appeal against over-taxation, leaving the poor defenseless in the face of high tax demands.
Other issues compounded the problems in each country (France had poor harvests, Portugal had trade issues, Poland was enserfing the Cossacks, and Charles I of Britain was warring with Parliament) but it can therefore be seen that the various revolts of the 1600s were a culmination of several factors common among the European nations. Religious differences between ruling and subject states led to polarisation of the provinces, religious repression, and an eventual outbreak of conflict. Economic exploitation of subject states to support either the monarchy or, more commonly, international wars also lead to widespread discontent and revolt. Finally, other infringement of rights and inadequate representation increased revolutionary sentiments.
- history biscuit
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